DIASPORA: WRITING FROM THE MARGINS

DIASPORA: WRITING FROM THE MARGINS

Dr. Annie John

(Asso. Prof.  & Head Dept. of English, A. R. Burla Womens’ College, Solapur.)

Abstract: Diasporic writings occupy a note worthy position in literature.  It helps construct new, identities in addition to the quest for one’s roots.  Travel, dislocation, quest for identity, a voyage down memory’s lane etc form the theme of the writings.  It is said that diasporic writers are people who live on the margin of two countries and unable to find the centre write from the periphery. The aim of the present paper is to investigate the diasporic tendencies and to trace the diasporic features.

The term ‘Diaspora’ literally means ‘to be scattered’. Other words which carry similar shades of meaning are  expatriate, exile, refugee, immigrant etc.

The Oxford Advanced Learner's Dictionary defines the term 'Diaspora' as:

 The movement of the Jewish people away from their own country to live and work in other countries.

It also refers to the movement of people from any nation or group away from their own country.

The Britannica Encyclopedia explains the term 'Diaspora' as:

 The dispersion of Jews among the Gentiles after the Babylonian exile (586 BC); or the aggregate of Jews outside Palestine or present day Israel.  ( Vol 3)

This term also carries religious, philosophical, political, and eschatological connotations, as the Jews perceive a special relationship between the land of Israel and themselves.

Jewish Diaspora

The year 70 A.D. marks the end of the Jewish state, since the Romans drove them away from their homes. This was home for the Jews for over a millennium. In reality, however, the Jewish Diaspora had begun long before that. During the year 722 A.D., the Assyrians conquered Israel; and the Hebrew inhabitants were scattered all over the Middle East. The years between 597-586 B.C. witnessed the Judeans being deported to different parts of Babylon, by king Nebuchadnezzar. They remained as a unified community. Few fled to and settled down in the 'Nile delta of Egypt.' Therefore, the Jewish community settled in the different parts of the Middle East. As such, the year 597 can be safely considered to be the beginning of the Jewish Diaspora. During the year 538 BC, Cyrus, the Persian, came to power; and the Judeans were permitted to return to their homeland. A majority of them preferred to remain in Babylon. While a few converted to other religion, the majority retained their religion, culture, and social customs. After 73 AD, the Hebrew history became the history of the Diaspora, since the Jews and their world view spread over Africa, Asia and Europe.

The word 'Diaspora' comes from the Greek term 'dia' which means 'through' and 'Speirein' that is 'scatter'. Thus Diaspora refers to the process of dispersion. The notion of the centre and a home are essentially associated with the term; and the images of journey / voyage, displacement, seeking roots, and finally seeking anchor in alternative homes are all evoked.

A closer analysis of the term 'Diaspora' reveals that there are more dimensions to this term. 

The offspring  of an area who have spread to many lands.

                                              (mcgraw-hill.com/sites)

The movement, migration, or scattering of people from their original homelands. (www.indianahistory.org/programming/immigration/glossary)

This definition can safely be applied to the Parsi community and their migratory movement. The invasion of Persia, by the Arab conquerors and the persecution of the Parsis at their hands, resulted in them fleeing away from Persia. They landed in Diu, off the coast of Gujarat in India, some 1200 years ago; and made this their new home. Although, there were few conditions imposed upon them by the local leader, the Parsis were free to follow their own religion. This was the beginning of their new life in a new country.

Similar migratory movements were found in India during the year 1947. The gruesome act of the Partition caused many Indians to cross to the other side of the border. The pain, and agony undergone; and their quest for identity were akin to what other immigrants encountered.

Migration sometimes takes place out of choice and freewill.

The dispersion or spreading of something that was originally localized. (www.cogsci.princeton.edu/cgi-bin/webwn)

The situation of the people of one country dispersed into other countries.  (www.yeshuahuadonai.com/glossary.htm)

No doubt, the earlier Diasporas were often products of forced migration. They were people running away from economic hardships, social/ political persecution, and religious discrimination. However, there was a second group of migrants who voluntarily moved to other countries, in search of a fortune and better prospects. The lure of the West, with promises of greater economic benefits, prompted this group to undertake this voyage. In addition to this, there were others who left to the West for high studies. Marriage and moving away with the spouse was yet another factor that encouraged migration.

Therefore it can be said that the reasons for migration are as follows

·         Indentured labour / economic hardships.

·         Political persecution / religious discrimination.

·         Better prospects / marriage / higher education.

Biblical Evidence of Diaspora

The Bible begins with the book of Genesis, which narrates the first nomadic story. God placed Adam and Eve in the Garden of Eden as its gardener, to tend and care for it. He also warned them regarding the fruit from the 'forbidden tree' and the dangerous consequences, if they disobeyed him. However, man sinned and fell short of the glory of God.

So the Lord God banished him forever from the Garden of Eden, and sent him out to farm the ground from which he had been taken. Thus God expelled him, and placed mighty angels at the east of the Garden of Eden, with a flaming sword to guard the entrance to the tree of life. 

                                                         (Genesis.3:23, 24)                                                       

Man's disobedience and his fall from Eden suggest a diasporic state. As a result of his sin and disobedience, the Almighty drove him away from his ‘original home’. He was forced to move out in search of a new home and some way to fend for himself. The Lord further said:

And you shall disappear from the land. For the lord will scatter you among all the nations from one end of the earth to the other. There you will worship heathen gods that neither you nor your ancestors have known. There among those nations you shall find no rest; your lives will hang in doubt. You will live night and day in fear, and will have no reason to believe that you will see the morning light. In the morning you will say, 'oh, that night were here!' And in the evening you will say, 'oh! that morning were here!' You will say this because of the awesome horrors surrounding you.

                                              (Deuteronomy.29:63-67)

The Bible also refers to the greatest event that occurred in Israel's history; the details of which are stated in the book of Exodus. The term 'exodus' means 'departure', the departure of the people of Israel from Egypt, where they had been slaves. The Egyptians exploited the Israelites ruthlessly in fields, with bricks and mortar. The Israelites suffered during their slavery and their cry went up to God, who liberated them and formed them into a nation, promising them a blessed future. This is the Biblical evidence regarding the advent of the Diaspora.  However, the exile produced some positive things too. It is likely that many of the books of the Jewish scriptures (Old Testament) were written during the period of exile. The book of Daniel in the Bible provides a glimpse into the problems faced by faithful Jews living in exile. The men in Diaspora were in touch with the natives of the host country, who in turn got attracted to the Christian faith. As such, 'dispersal' helped the spread of Christianity throughout the Roman Empire. A detailed account of this is found in the New Testament, in the book of Matthew, Luke and Acts.

All these definitions have a strong undercurrent of diasporic tendencies. The dimension of the definition includes all the people who have moved away from their homeland (for some purpose) and sought refuge in an alien country. The term 'Diaspora', which once implied to the Jewish community, has now become an umbrella term and accepts every immigrant from across the globe.

The Indian Diaspora

Both Naipaul and Mukherjee are writers of the Indian Diaspora. Therefore, it is necessary to trace the nature of the India Diaspora.

The subjugation of India and its incorporation into the British Empire gave rise to the Indian Diaspora. A large part of India came under the British rule, by the year 1830. The British Government of India permitted the transportation of Indians to far off alien lands to nurture their political and economic gains. The decline in the Indian economy, the rise in natural calamities, the destruction of industries, and the increase in the number of the unemployed, encouraged indentured labour. The Indo-Trinidadian scholar, Kenneth Permasad states:

Indentureship recruitment took place in an India reeling under the yoke of colonial oppression.                                                        (http://www.sscnet.ucla.edu/southasia/diaspora/reflect.htm)          

Although, a very small fraction of the emigrants left 'voluntarily'; the majority undertook this voyage to escape the economic hardships and their wretched lives. Over the period 1834 to 1917, nearly 1.5 million Indians had sold themselves into debt bondage. They were sent to different places like the British Guiana (present Guyana), Jamaica, Trinidad, and other Caribbean nations The Barbadian novelist, George Lamming, recognizing this, says:

These Indian hands, whether in British Guiana or Trinidad, have fed all of us.... there can be no creative discovery of this civilization without the central and informing influence of the Indian presence. There can be no history of Trinidad and Guyana that is not also a history of the humanization of those landscapes by the Indian labour.    (http://www.sscnet.ucla.edu/southasia/diaspora/reflect.htm)                                                                   

However, the Indians rose from the painful experience of their indentured migration; and during the last few decades succeeded in building their lives anew. They have also earned an 'inestimable and indispensable’ position in the countries to which they migrated. Today, the Indian Diaspora constitutes an important force in world culture.

The Indian Diaspora began in the 19^th century with the Indians being sent as indentured labourers to far off places like Mauritius, Fiji, Guyana, Malaysia, South Africa, Trinidad, SriLanka and various other places. In addition to this, over two million Indians participated in the World wars, Boer wars; and refused to come back, claiming the land on which they fought as their own. It is undoubtedly true that the post war Europe was reconstructed with the assistance of the Indians and South Asians. Similarly, their unskilled labour also helped the physical transformation of the Middle East. It is seen that the Indian community, today, occupy a place of considerable privilege in the United States.

Writers of the Indian Diaspora

The writers of the Indian Diaspora, through their literary contributions have greatly enriched the English literature. They have been aiming at re-inventing India through the rhythms of ancient legends, the cadences of mythology, the complexities of another civilization, cultural assimilation and nostalgia. They dive deep into the realms of imagination and the ocean of memory to paint something quite different and distinct from that portrayed by fellow novelists, so far, in English language. To name a few, V. S. Naipaul, Bharati Mukherjee, Salman Rushdie, Vikram Seth, Amitav Ghosh, Vikram Chandra, Firdaus Kanga, Rohinton Mistry, and Amit Chaudhuri are writers of the Indian diaspora. 

The writers of the Indian Diaspora write about India, even as they seek to locate themselves in the new culture. They paint the vastness and the complexities of the home country which contains everything in multitudes- multiple truths, multiple crisis, multiple realities, and this diversity is portrayed for the world wide reading public, and chiefly for the Indians. This aspect is best expressed by Shashi Tharoor who is often troubled by the question regarding the authenticity of his writings and the audience for whom he writers. He replies:

Ask not who I write for: I write for you.

(The Hindu. Aug 5^th , 2001)

Characteristic features of diasporic writings

¨A sense of dislocation – physical and psychical.

¨Disillusionment.

¨Multiculturalism.

¨Alienation / Isolation.

¨Identity crisis / Tracing the roots.

¨Expatriate Sensibility.

¨Insider – Outside view.

¨A feeling of intense loss.

¨Nostalgia  / Memory / Reminiscence.

¨Autobiographical elements.

¨Nagging sense of guilt.

¨Pretended sense of satisfaction.

¨Racial discrimination.

¨Impartial portrayal of India.

¨Journey/ Voyage.

Some of the common themes re-occurring in the writings of the diasporic writers are the new home, impossibilities of going back home, inability to adapt to the new world, tracing back the roots and alienation. The crisis of being a diasporic writer is brought out very effectively through the words of Anita Rau Badami, a Canadian writer, in Makarand Paranjape’s article “One foot in Canada and a Couple of Toes in India”:

We are both doomed and blessed, to be suspended between two worlds, always looking back, but with two gorgeous places to inhabit, in our imaginations or our hearts.    (Paranjape161)

The diasporic writer experiences dislocation and finds himself caught between a flux of two opposing cultures and two contrasting worlds. The diasporic writer tries to negotiate a new space for himself. Some writers even go a little further and create a ‘third space’ and move away from both the lands –– the original and the adopted.  This creation of the third space is only an attempt to escape from the conflictual situations that he encounters or to negotiate alternative realities. The writer begins a process of reconstruction both at the personal and universal levels. While working at the ‘third space’, the writer moves away from his own culture and the past. He begins to interpret something new. Drifting away from the past and rejecting even the present, he begins to interpret a culture and world which he is not born into, but acquired.

Some writers write about their adopted land and flow with the tide, just as the mainstream writers do; others write about their ethnic world and tend to be different. Normally, the immigrant writer speaks and writes from the margins. He stands on the periphery and at times tends to be a mere spectator. He writes and voices his opinion of being marginalized, alienated, obscured, peripheralised, and marginalized.

Awareness of one’s past and tracing one’s roots becomes a pre-requisite. Along with this, there is also the need to adapt to the changes. Immigration is nothing but a renewal of sorts. Being physical away from the motherland makes some of them undertake a literary journey back home. This journey helps them to redefine, reconstruct, and reshape their past. Both the situations of leaving home and the arrival in a new land, the way in which they intersect with each other, the social relations that crop up with this, determined by class, gender, race, and other factors configure the diaspora and its subsequent literature.

In diasporic writings, the cultural encounter plays a very significant role. This is followed by the bicultural pulls that cause the emergence of a new culture. The diasporic space acts upon the space of the home country. The centre remains the same with the margins having being expanded. It causes cultural encounters and the formation of new cultures. Immigration and its experiences vary from one writer to another, in relation to various factors such as the family background, social / cultural / economic setup, academic skills, and so on. Migration does not dislocate a person totally from one place to another. Similarly, absorption into a new culture cannot be total. Reality here is an ongoing process, which one has to face without rejecting it. The only way out of this situation is either to accept or reject it.

The diasporic writers write from their own perspective and each turn to their motherland, as per their need. V. S. Naipaul, who is twice displaced, travels back to India in order to trace his roots. Rushdie seeks refuge in India, its mythologies and history. Creative writers like Rohintion Mistry and Ashish Gupta write from their own experience of migration and the memories that make them travel backwards in time and space. Bharati Mukherjee, by the sheer power of her literary ability and meticulous details, narrates how the women immigrants are capable of relating to the two homes simultaneously.

For an immigrant, the act of writing is a sort of catharsis. It is a canvas on which they create and explore themselves. Writing helps to redefine themselves, especially, their identity which they have lost, during the process of migration. It is an intense and sentimental account of how a person dislocated in the new place feels and how he goes on to retrieves his past for the present. During the process of writing, memory is invoked in a magnanimous manner, and this helps to rebuild and renovate the past. Memory is a painful journey into the past, which is dismantled and fractured.

In an immigrant’s writings, there are a number of confessional statements, philosophical commentaries, and logical assertions–all aiming towards the quest for the self. The immigrant being under disparate socio-cultural forces faces an identity crisis and feels castrated. Thus, the anguished perception of his own displacement and rootlessness is brought to the fore in his writings. His condition is that of a perpetual exile lost in the eternal search for his roots. Edward Said, in his Reflections on Exile, comments:

The condition of an exile and his experience is something very terrible; and the agony that he faces can’t be surmounted. The exile faces a rift at various levels, that is between self and home, between self and host country and the like. No doubt, there are moments of triumph and romance, heroism and achievements in his life. However the loss of leaving behind one’s homeland is so great, that it undermines all gains.                                         (Said 173)

What lies at the roots of an immigrant’s problem is the fact that he does not get the feel of belonging to either his homeland or his second home. Out of this arises a true and deep yearning, an intense longing for that which is unattainable. What lies at the heart of the diasporic literature is ‘the consciousness of loss’.  The world that the immigrant writers see is of course not void at all. It is densely populated with the social and physical phenomena, complications and contradictions of human endeavors and the unbearable conflict between the idea and reality.  The immigrants, expatriates or exiles have been wrenched up and thrown away from their roots. The tensions that they face are multi-dimensional. The dislocation that they counter is on various levels –– physical, social, cultural, and even psychical.

A diasporic writer's talent lies deep not in a particular land or culture but in the predicament that he faces in terms of isolation, alienation, homelessness, and a quest for identity. This talent comes to the surface through his literary imagination.  The diasporic writer, while confronting the present, races into the past through the power of his memory. M.G. Vassanji aptly suggests this aspect of reclaiming the past. He states:

This reclamation of the past is the first serious act of writing having reclaimed it, having given to write about the present. (Vassanji 63)                                                       

 India, for them is in their fond imagination. It is a fantasy land where nothing bad can happen. Quest for self-realisation and seeking fulfillment is what all diasporic writers aim at. However, during this process, they realize that the identity they possess, is all fractured and fragmented. This brings about the inevitable frustration and bafflement. Further, failing to receive the required sustenance from the foreign soil and being looked down as an alien, they suffer and deteriorate into emotional and moral depravity.  The diasporic writers' works do not show their inability to leave their motherland behind, nor are they able to assimilate their past with their diasporic present. They are not in a position to a bridge the gap between the two. It is this very situation that they are thrown into, which transcends all limits of time and place; and go on to achieve a universal status.

The expatriate writer, in his literary journey, travels back homewards, down memory’s lane, towards the past and all that is lost. This indicates his long journey away from home; and he makes the fullest use of this opportunity to harp upon lost moments, lost love, and lost opportunities.  The diasporic writer’s narrative contours the impossibility of return to the homeland, either in time or place. There seems a very remote possibility of coming back and belonging once again to that left behind. The position that he holds today is based on the aspect of temporariness. Here, there is an intense urge to make a claim and write about his sense of belonging; and this is worked out only through the device of retelling the past. All the inner conflicts are laid to rest through these retellings, and the writer finds a voice to reassert him, through a process of renegotiations. 

Home becomes a mythical space of desire and also a virtual space of no return. Home, then, is portrayed through many versions. The actual ‘origin’ of home set in the geographical locales, is refigured and reinvented, through the imagination. Sometimes this is also juxtaposed with the present day reality with all its local sights and sounds –– There lies a paradox which gives rise to conflictual tensions. A lot of diversities abound and there is no monolithic notion of home. In the diasporic literature, there is an oscillation between feelings of nostalgia, anguish, love, anger, cynicism, acceptance, and rejection. Vijay Mishra, in his article “Diaspora and the Art of Impossible Mourning”, writes:

Diasporic identities are indeed formed by the grand narrative of being untimely ripp'd from a mother's womb.  (Paranjape 31)

The writer’s identity gives shape to his narratives and the many paradoxical tensions, energies the diasporic literature. The identity constructs lies on realities and not merely on abstractions. This aspect of identity construct takes into consideration other factors such as his allegiance to the nation, his home, the socio-cultural setup and much more. In case of the diasporic writer, his routings are a reality. However, the great distance of the present in which the writer resides with its multicultural context, in a way greatly impress and influence his literary works. The diasporic discourse, both creative and critical draws its impulses from the unique, the specific, the universal, and the interconnection they share.  The sense of rootlessness combined with a notion of belonging to common homeland, the experience of dislocation, and the anguish that accompany it, have gone on to establish strong ties among scattered communities.

The writer in the literary fabric mirrors the social and political themes with all its contradictions. The contradictory aspects that he paints could also be symbolic of his own contradictory physical and psychical pulls. Cultural encounters and crucial historical / political / social crux stands at the core of the diasporic movements. The diasporic concern deals not only with the political process but moves ahead and explores its impact upon human relationships and the aftermath that follows. The cultural and historical interaction with the interplay of memory stands as new for each generation. With each generation, the dimensions gain a multiplicity, which needs to be explored. Relationship with the past is not always simple and straight, it always oscillates between different aspects. Similar is one’s association with the present. Hurdles and obstacles are ever lingering around. However one cannot break with the past for good, nor reject the present. The aspect of location and dislocation contribute greatly in the making of the self, and so find its ways into the diasporic discourses.  The diasporic writer is always preoccupied with the past and all that is lost. He recalls and narrates the past in various ways and rearranges them in different fashion. Jasbir Jain, a well known critic, in her article, “Identity, Home and Culture through Dislocations” very aptly suggests:

It is through these retellings that the inner conflicts are worked out and resolved, a renegotiation takes place with the self and a voice is found for self – assertion.  (Jain 245)

The diasporic writers frame their realties and try to trace parallels through connections and interconnections, between the remembered, the desired, and the experienced

Diasporic literature harps on aspects such as the past, the lost, many recollections, and the interplay of memory. There is no way hoping to do away with all these things.

Vijay Mishra in his article “Diasporas and the Art of Impossible Mourning” states the need of all these elements by opining:

 Without memory, without a sense of loss, without a certain will to mythologies, life for many displaced people will become intolerable and diasporic theory would lose its ethical edge. (Paranjape 46)                                                 

The status of a diasporic writer is that of a rootless wanderer, without a heritage to hold on to. Often these diasporic writers have been assailed for misinterpreting / misrepresenting Indian reality and for being inauthentic. However, the truth is, the narratives of the diasporic writers are a framework of their memory motivated by an intense urge to construct their own reality. Having faced the bitter and harsh realities, these writers consistently knock down idealized view in favour of more complex and even contradictory truth. Often being attacked for hanging dirty laundry, these writers seem not motivated out of vindication, but out of an effort to scan through the unhappy memories they hold. These writers time and again use their pathological vision to portray to the people of the world, what is not visible to their eyes, or even sometimes what they refuse to see.

In this way, great many writers of the India diaspora have been contributing significantly to the Indian English literature. All these writers are different from one another and have a very distinct personality. However, there are a few themes of the diaspora that have been a binding force between them and a focal point. The crisis between ‘what is’ and ‘what was’, or between ‘reality’ and the ‘imaginary’, also has a positive effect. It energises the narrative skills of the writer.

Right from the Indian exotica to the new genres, the writers of the Indian diaspora have been experimenting with various things.  The Indian writer’s are growing and greatly flourishing in various markets. The kind of literary material that the Indian writers offer is something that very few countries can boast of.

What makes the immigrant writer’s works so pulsating and colourful is his ability to express himself in an adopted tongue. We can call it the ‘second’ or even the ‘third’ language. But the simplicity and grandeur that flow through their literature is surely worthy of praise and worth pondering. Using the rich English language as a powerful tool, these writers have gone ahead and enriched it further by the sheer magic of their emotions, sentiments and expression. All  these writers, who write in a language which is not their own, have a purpose regarding the same. Their purpose of writing in English can be aptly summed through the words of Eva Hoffman, who justifies why she chose to write in English. In her work, Lost in Translation: A Life in a New Language, she states:

If I'm to write about the present, I have to write in the language of the present, even if it’s not the language of the self.                                                                 (Hoffman 121)

Since independence, the Indian diasporic writers have been making worthwhile, contributions to the literary world. Diasporic writings seem to be flourishing in the international market and have been critically acclaimed too.

Diaspora, is therefore, a scattering of the seed in the wind, the fruits of which are -- a new creation and a fight to survive. Every diasporic movement holds a historical significance, as it carries within itself the kernel of the nation’s history. The diasporic Indian's life is filled with adventure and this is opening up new vistas for daily discourses.

Large scale migration, as a result of various political and economic reasons took place during the early 19^th century. The masses of the indentured labourers transported to various countries became the grave, invisible ground upon which empires were built.  The Capitalistic forces saw migration and dislocation becoming the order of the day. Although, various factors were responsible for the process of migration, the truth is that no human society has been able to avoid it. The crisis that follow migration are innumerable and they are again encountered in various ways, such as assimilation, withdrawal, submission, and involvement. Since the late 19^th and the 20^th century, voluntary migrants to the West along with the second and third generations of the early migrants formed a part of the existing diaspora.

Diaspora / Dispersal / Dislocation and the problems associated with it are the greatest challenges of our present times. ‘Self’, ‘Memory’, ‘Home’, ‘Rootedness’, and ‘Belonging’ are some of the concepts that clamour for re-definition. Diaspora is a journey towards self-realization, self-recognition, self-knowledge, self-definition, and maturity.

The global movement has resulted in the emergence of new narratives, with new themes, which reflect the trials and traumas of the displaced and their struggle at recovering and reconstructing themselves. There is an element of creativity present in the diasporic writings; and this creation stands as a compensation for the many losses suffered.  

Thus, we can say that, Diaspora is the global context needs a re-interpretation.  In today’s age of globalization, there is nothing like drawing a line.  The centre remains the same with the margins having being expanded. The truth is that dislocation is not final or complete, so also absorption into a new culture is not total. Reality is an ongoing process, either accept or reject it. Dislocation does not always bring about suffering or pain. The truth is one cannot hold on to the land forever.

Raja Rao, when asked why he prefers to stay in the West, said

·         Easy availability of medicines

·         Easy availability of books.

·         Physical health

·         Intellectual nourishment

From the dislocation of Adam to the present times, it has been a long going for the men in Diaspora.  The time has changed, but the concept and the reason behind it remains the same.  The underlying truth is that every person born is destined to experience Diaspora.  There are some factors that prompt or direct the diasporic movement.  The Divine call is replaced by an inner urge, which comes in the form of force, choice, survival instinct or search for greener pastures.  It is a divine destiny which no man can escape.  The very first step that a child takes when he learns to walk is suggestive of the great movement that he is going to undertake in life.

            Man’s diasporic status began with the loss of paradise.  Diaspora posed a theological dilemma, to stay outside the holy land was considered as a penalty or punishment.  It is the spiritual fulfillment that man yearns for.  The entire movement that he covers during his life span is aimed at regaining the lost Eden.

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·         Holy Bible- Good News Bible. Bangalore: The Bible Society of India, 1988-89.

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·         John Annie, In Search of Greener Pastures-Vol. I, Mumbai: Pen Craft Publication, 2012

·         Oxford Advanced Learner’s Dictionary.

·         Parekh, Bikhu. “Some Reflections on the Indian Diaspora”, Journal of Contemporary Thought. 1993.

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·         Said, Edward. Reflections on Exile and Other Literary and Cultural Essays. New Delhi: Penguin India, 2001

·         Said, Edward. Culture and Imperialism, Vintage, London, 1994.